Mythology and Cultures

The study of myths, or to a collection of myths of a culture depits the nature of a culture. Comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths of different cultures. Greek mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Greece. A myth is a sacred narrative explaining how the world and mankind began and progressed to their present form. Basically a myth is a story originating within a tradition of any society.

The main characters in myths are gods, superhuman heroes and humans. As sacred stories these myths are closely linked to religion or spirituality in ancient times. In the society from which it comes, a myth is regarded as a true accounts of the past which has come down through rulers and priests. Creation myths generally take place in a primordial age, when the world was not in its form as how it is in the society, these and explain how the world evolved into its current form and how customs, sins and rituals were established.

Folktales are linked to myths although they are different stories with different meanings. Folktales are created in any time or place, and are not regarded as true or sacred. Legends are stories that are considered true, but have happened in a more recent time. Legends usually have humans as their main characters, whereas myths generally focus on superhuman characters.

Some scholars claim that msince myths were often orally passed down through the ages myths are accounts of real historical events, and so these figures in the historical accounts until the figures came to be Gods.

According to one theory, myths began as explainations that represented natural phenomena: Apollo represents the sun, Poseidon represents water, etc.The spiritual concepts: Athena represents wisdom Aphrodite represents love.

Modern movies often show mythological characteristcs of the Superhero. Movies are an expression of the society in which it was created by and reflects the time and location in which it is created. Movies are the evolution of myths, idea of the myth is the same. Myths will continue on in the cultures that fabricate them and be passed down through the media. Whether movies or book or ebooks myths change and evolve with time. It is the nature of man to explain the unexplainable.

The Seven Wonders of the World

The Colossus of Rhodes this enormous structure statue took 12 years to complete but was completely destroyed 50 years later. This structure spanned the entrance to Mandraki Harbor.  The task was created by the sculptor Chares of Lindos. The base was made of white marble, with the statue built from the base to the summit. The construction stood through time until an earthquake occurred in Rhodes in approximately 226 BC.

The Status of Zeus at Olympia was a statue of the great Greek God Zeus. It stood in the ancient town of Olympia, on the west coast of what is now modern Greece. The temple where the statue was held was designed and built by the architect Libon around 450 BC. The temple stood through years of natural disasters, until it was ravaged by fire in the fifth century AD.  However, the main statue survived until a fire in AD 462 at the palace at Constantinople where it had been transported to and was left in ruins.

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The Great Pyramid of Giza in the ancient city of Giza stand the only remaining wonder of the world. The Great Pyramid of Khufu is located in the capital of Egypt, Cairo, in the tourist region of the Giza Plateau. It was built by the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu around the year 2560 BC as his burial tomb. The pyramids are great architectural structures and they were completed in a long span of time. This pyramid is reported to have been constructed for over 20 years. Its initial height was around 481 feet high. It was the tallest structure on Earth for more than 43 centuries.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was the most beautiful gardens of its time, the most exotic animals, terraces and beautiful monuments were to be found there. This is the wonder of the world has yet to be proven. It is said to have been located on the east bank of the Euphrates River south of what is today Baghdad, Iraq. It is said that these wondrous gardens were built by the king Nebuchadnezzar.

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus this great temple was built and dedicated to the Greek Goddess Artemis. It was located in the ancient city of Ephesusin Turkey. The temple was built in 550 BC by the Lydian King Croesus. The temple drew everyone from merchants and peasants to kings and nobles visit the temple. The temple survived until 356 BC when it was burnt it to the ground.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria a fully functional wonder of the world lies on an ancient island of Pharos, which is now near the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The lighthouse was designed by Ptolemy Soter in 290 BC, but was not completed in his lifetime. This lighthouse stood for centuries and was used to mark the harbor. In 956 AD an earthquake struck Alexandria and damaged the lighthouse. Other earthquakes shook the lighthouse and the life of the lighthouse was totally ended in 1480.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus a beautiful temple was located in the city of Halicarnassus. It was finished around 350 BC and stood on the Aegean Sea in southwest Turkey. The tomb was created for king Mausollos of Caria, and designed by wife Artemisia. The temple lasted for 16 centuries until an earthquake damaged the roof.  In the early 15th century, it is said that the Knights of St. John of Malta invaded the region and used the blocks from the Mausoleum to build their fortress.

Did these seven wonders truly exist or are they fabrications of an ancient people’s myths? One might ask that question but for now there is the famous Seven Wonders of the World. 

Classical Greek Culture

Classical Greek culture is strongly evident as an influence on the Roman Empire; this has been extended too many parts of the Mediterranean and European areas.  Classical Greece is the culture which endowed the foundation of the Western culture.

The dates for the beginning or the end of Classical Antiquity are inexact and it is considered to have lasted for approximately 1,300 years.

With the beginning of Ancient Greece there brought a wealth of changes which among other things brought the alphabetic script to Greece, marking the beginning of Greek literature. There was an Archaic from which evolved into the Classical period around 500 BC, which was then followed by the Hellenistic period at the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. The Archaic period is understood to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens in 510 BC.

The Classical period, c. 500 - 323 BC, is typified by a style which was considered to be commendable in its architectural designs for example the Parthenon and other designs. The politics the Classical Period was dominated by Athens during the 5th century, which then gave way for the Spartan authority during the 4^th century.

The Hellenistic period, 323-146 BC, is when Greek culture and power expanded into the near and middle east. This then remained in force until the Romans conquered the Grecian states.

Roman Greece is the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD.

Herodotus is known for his Histories written between the 450s and 420s BC, the Herodotus' work discusses 6^th century historical figures in the history of Greece.The author that succeeded were Athenians, which is why there is more known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities.

A mercantile class rose in the first half of the 7th century, with the beginning of the use of coinage in about 680 BC.  The aristocratic class which generally governed the states was threatened by the new wealth of merchants, who of course desired political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by the lower class dictators.

 By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. The surrounding rural areas and smaller towns were under their control, and in addition Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers.

With an increasing of  population in the 8th and 7th centuries there resulted an emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily, Asia Minor and farther. The Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than Greece of the present time. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial connections with them.

From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea.

Eventually Greek colonization reached as far north as present day Ukraine and Russia. Settling to the west coasts of Sicily and Southern Italy, after which came Southern France, Corsica, and parts of Spain. Greek colonies in Egypt and Libya had been established.

The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. With the conquest of the Roman Empire their legacy spread through generations of scholars.  The heritage of their civilization created an inheritance for the world we know today.  Ancient Greece study is a wealth of information that is still being studied by historians and intellectuals and their myths have been passed down through the ages.

Ancient Rome and Religion

Religion played a very important role in the daily life of Ancient Rome and the Romans. Roman religion was centered around gods and explanations the Romans believed that gods controlled their lives and, as a result, spent a great deal of their time worshipping them. The Romans had a practical attitude to religion, which perhaps explains why they had difficulty in taking to the idea of a single, all-seeing, all-powerful god.

The Roman’s religion was not based on any one belief, but on a mixture of rituals, taboos, and traditions which had over the years came from sources that were taken from the lands that they conquered

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To the Romans, religion was not so much spiritual but a relationship between man and forces which were believed to control people's existence and well-being.

Their attitudes concerned the influence on political and military events which outlasted the republic, and private, with the head of the family directing the domestic rituals and prayers in the house much like the delegates of the people performed the public ceremonials.

The people's view of the world changed and during the first century AD they turned to the Greek 

origin myths. The original names of the Gods changed but the Greek influence remained. The most important god was Jove. He was the king of gods who ruled with his wife Juno, the goddess of the sky. Other gods were: Mars God of war; Mercury Messenger of the Gods; Neptune God of the sea; Janus God of the doorway; Diana Goddess of hunting; Vesta Goddess of the hearth; Minerva Goddess of healing and wisdom; Venus Goddess of love.

After a time the emperor was also considered to be a god and he was worshipped on special occasions. Each god had a festival day and was usually a public holiday. On this holiday the people visited the temple of the god was being celebrated and priests would sacrifice animals and offer them to the god.

Temples to worship the gods were built throughout the Roman Empire.  The temple was well decorated with a statue of the god in it. There was an altar where a priest served the god and made sacrifices each family home would also have a small altar and shrine. The Romans had personal gods which they worshipped every day at home. The shrine contained statues of the gods and the head of the household presided over family prayers around the shrine each day.  Pleasing these household gods was more important to them than the community gods.

The major gods that were worshiped by the people were derived mostly from the Greeks with variations in name and powers.

Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of different religious influences. Many were derived from the Greek colonies of southern Italy. Many also were introduced form old religions of the Etruscans or Latin tribes; the deity over time became to be seen as the Greek god of equivalent or similar nature To the Romans, the observance of religious rites was a public duty rather than a private  their beliefs were founded on a variety of unconnected and often inconsistent mythological traditions, many of them derived from the Greek rather than Italian myths.

Until the advent of Christianity the Romans had their own deities which had become rituals to the people and kept for a period of time that is sparely a combination of myths from different lands.

Castor and Pollux

Castor and Pollux were twin brothers who appeared Grecian and Roman myths. Castor and Pollux were the offspring of Leda and the Swan, under which the disguised Zeus had revealed himself. Leda gave birth to an egg from which sprang the twins

 The twins were worshiped as gods who helped shipwrecked sailors and watched over those who made sacrifices to them. The Romans considered Castor and Pollux the benefactor of horses and knights, called equates. Castor was a talented horse trainer and Pollux was an expert boxer. The brothers were always together.

In one of the earliest myths that has accounts of Castor and Pollux was when they rescued their sister Helen after she had been kidnapped by King Theseus. Helen was later found in the myth as the woman who caused the Trojan Warf. The twins also went with Jason and the Argonauts on their quest in search of the Golden Fleece. When a storm erupted on the voyage, the Orpheus prayed to the gods and played his harp. The storm immediately ceased, and stars appeared on the heads of the twins. It is because of this myth that Castor and Pollux became as the patrons of sailors.

The most famous story is the death of Castor. The twins wanted to marry their cousins Phoebe and Hilaria. Castor and Pollux carried the women away to Sparta, were chased by their male cousins. During the fight the twins killed both Idas and Lynceus, but Castor was fatally wounded. Castor's spirit went to Hades, the place of the dead, because he was a human. Pollux, who was a god, could not bear being separated from his brother he asked Zeus to give up his immortality so that he could join his brother in Hades. Zeus declared that the brothers would take turns dwelling in Hades and with the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus placed the brothers in the heavens as part of the constellation Gemini, the twins.

Monsters of Greek Myhthology

Monsters in classical mythology are often typified as being part animal and part human, or a combination of animal forms. They are not really horror monsters, just unpleasant or nasty afflictions sent by the gods. They often are in the heroism myths overcome or destroyed as a goal of the hero’s quest.

There are numerous creatures as the goal to destroy by as many heroes. The monsters appear in all parts of the earth, heavens, and the underworld. Some mentioned here have a hint of the cultures that they are found in.

Cerberus is the watchdog of the realm of Hades, He is depicted as a three headed dog with a serpent tail, and on his back in snake heads.  Chained in front of the gates of the Underworld, he terrorizes souls upon their entering.  Cerberus was conquered by heroes such as Heracles and Orpheus.

Centaurs are considered savage and violent, these beings are half man and half horse. The live in the mountains and forests, their food is raw flesh, and their behavior is bestial. The centaurs are known for their drunkenness and lust and are often described as followers of Dionysus, god of wine. Centaurs are known for their battle against Heracles and were featured in some legends concerning abductions.

Chimera is a monster, a legendary beast in its shape from both a goat and a lion. Some stories say that it had the rear of a snake and the head of a lion on the body with the body of a goat and it breathed fire.

The Cyclopes were giants with one enormous eye in the middle of their forehead. They are considered the three sons of Uranus and Gaea, the embodiments of Heaven and Earth; they were thrown into the underworld by their brother Cronus, one of the Titans, after he dethroned Uranus. Zeus released the Cyclopes from the underworld and they gave him the gifts of thunder and lightning. They created Zeus' lightning bolts. They are lawless, savage and bestial.

Harpies are birds with the heads of women, long claws, and they leave behind filth and stench. They were originally sent by Zeus to torment a blinded soothsayer. They were driven away by the heroes of the Argonaut expedition

The monster called the Hydra was also the child of Echidna and Typhoon, a snake with numerous heads that were said to be human. It was a test for Heracles. The breath of the Hydra was so venomous that anyone who approached it would die. Heracles attempted to destroy it by cutting off its heads, but as soon as he did so more heads grew in their place. Heracles burnt the necks of its head of the monster with a torch in order to prevent from growing back. Heracles dipped his arrowheads in the Hydra's blood and made them extremely poisonous. The monsters of Classical Greek mythology are numerous and vary in size, appearance and strength.  Along with the Gods and heroes they are the most significant part of the mythology.

The Mythical Dragon

 Dragons are in almost every ancient civilization with its own tales and stories about these impressive creatures. The two most common representation s of this fantastic monster are in Europe and the Orient. Most of these beasts had reptilian traits with various strengths and magical powers.

In Eastern cultures they were depicted as wise teachers and allies of humans. They were the warders of peace and wisdom. The Western creatures were in most often the opposite.  For the most part they were entirely evil and solely bent on destruction and causing total chaos. They possessed the ability to control and use its powers to help their allies and destroy any opposing force. These legendary creatures have existed through time and sustained prominent, no matter if they are the defenders or the evil villains, in tales and mythology. 

These beasts have soared through the skies and conquered, inhabiting the high mountains and skies of the earth. Many inhabit the planet as those who breathe fire of great intensity and are able to destroy entire villages. Dragons of darkness and shadow have existed such as the Nightshade Dragon was created from primeval darkness, this dragon is able to shoot beams of dark energy from it's mouth destroying it's enemies and setting the countryside into in shadow before taking to the skies flaring fire from its mouth.

It is said that there are some dragons that are able to control the minds of lesser powers; and can manipulate its enemies to self destruction. Dragons are often huge and with various capabilities storm creating, concentrate and unleash solar beams from its mouth;  when they descend from the heavens with might and ferocit

Dragons have been shown in the most advanced and primitive parts of the world.  Almost every culture has a tale of a great beast with immense powers with fiery breath or other supernatural powers.  The stories of the dragons are thrilling and captivating.  These may be myths thought up by man or may actually have a basis of truth in a world of imaginations.

The Mystery of Death Myths

The mystery of death is a found in the myths of most cultures. Death is a universal feature of human life, so stories about its origin appear to be universal in human cultures. A type of myth that explains the origins of a culture and the problems that faces it each region has its own distinguishing features however there is a common theme.

 In the myths of African cultures, in the beginning there was no death. People die but are reborn in some stories rebirth is lost such as when there is greed or arrogance in earthly life or as a punishment for not observing acceptable behavior. Other themes are removing the link between heaven and Earth such as in the tower of Babel.

The origin of death is a common theme in Native American mythology. The myths often blame the clever Coyote. A common explanation of death was that it was the result of a debate between two people or animals in which one would choose death and the other immortality.

In an early Greek myth death is attributed to of an argument between Zeus and Prometheus the Titan. As a result of this quarrel, Zeus creates a woman, Pandora and presents her with a coffin in which death is one of the results of his opening of Pandora’s Box.

The Egyptian creation myth describes the death of an old Universe and its rebirth as a new Universe, by the ‘death and rebirth of the Creator. The creation myth of the death and rebirth beliefs that were important in ancient Egypt which is seen throughout the culture of the Egyptians; the death and rebirth of the Sun; the equinox and the eclipses Also the death and rebirth of the Moon with it’s eclipses; the death and rebirth of the stars; the river Nile with its flooding and periods of dryness and agriculture; all relate to the death and rebirth of the king who is empowered with the qualities of the Creator. These natural, recurring events were a remembrance of the death and rebirth of the Universe, incarnated by the death and rebirth of the Creator or God.

The true God of ancient Egypt was not the Sun god but the Creator, who had died and was reborn at the beginning of time.

Death and rebirth is observed in many cultures such as the birth of the universe out of chaos. Life has its cycles as the seasons, and although the myths vary in some ways the idea of rebirth after death. By going to a heaven, or place without the pains of life exist in most religions.

The Amazon Women

 In the western parts of Libya there was a race which was ruled by women. Their custom was that the women should be trained in the arts of war, they captured men only for the procreation of children, but the women were the administrators of all the affairs of state. A large group of women they were warlike in all aspects, were called the Amazons. These women were said to be brave and strong with strength and fortitude like no other woman. An Amazon women was raised from a child to fight and to protect their people

According to Greek mythology, Amazons were a warlike tribe of women descended from the god of war, Ares and the naiad Harmonia. They originated from the area around the Caucasus Range and settled in Pontus

To ensure that the race of the Amazons survived, the women mated with the neighboring Gargarean men for a short period each year. Any male children born were either sent back to the Gargareans or killed. The women entirely ruled their society for defense and one for domestic affairs shared the sovereign rule.

The Amazon women carried arms, and defended their own country, and for the conquest of neighboring territories. They fought both hand to hand and on horseback, carrying crescent shields and spears, bows and arrows and battle axes.

War, hunting, agriculture and training the young girls made up the Amazon culture. The Amazons were devoted to the goddess of hunting, Artemis. They were to the Greeks viewed as barbarians.

Ancient sources show that Amazon tombs could be found frequently throughout the ancient Greek world as well as statues of the Amazons which may be proof they did once exist.  They were always far away from most human life, usually keeping to themselves when they were not invading.

Whether the Amazon women existed or not they are a powerful part of Grecian history and storytelling.  The myths that involve the Amazon women are still passed down today as a culture that women of the present time can believe in and May one day establish a true equality with men in our society.

The Centaurs In Ancient Greece

In Greek mythology, centaurs were creatures that were half man and half horse. They had the head, neck, chest, and arms of a man and the body and legs of a horse. Most of the centaurs were creatures known for their drunkenness and inappropriate behavior.

It is said that the centaurs were descended from a son of the son of Ares Ixion. Ixion fell in love with Hera. Ixion deciding to seduce Hera arranged a meeting with Hera. Zeus discovered the plan and formed a cloud in the shape of Hera. Ixion enraptured by his lust took advantage of the encounter and from this union; the race of centaurs was created.

The War with the kingdom of Lapiths began with King Pirithous of the Lapiths, son of Ixion, invited the centaurs to his wedding. The centaurs became drunk and uncontrollable offended with their lecherous pursuit of the Lapith women. A battle   between the rivals erupted. The Lapiths won the fight, killing many centaurs and he centaurs had no other choice but to leave Thessaly. The Grecian myths relate many clashes between centaurs and the hero Hercules.

Although, most of the centaurs were savage, the centaur Chiron, a teacher of medicine, music, hunting, and archery and the son of the god Cronos, taught gods and heroes. , including Hercules and Achilles among other heroes of the time.  Unfortunately Chiron was injured by one of Hercules' poisoned arrows.  Since he would live forever as the son of a God he would have suffered from the injury forever.  Finally Chiron asked Zeus to let him die. Zeus granted the favor and he was placed in the heavens as a star.

According to another myth the centaur named Nesses tried to rape the wife of Hercules. Hercules discovered in the act and shot him with a poisoned arrow. As he was dying, Nessus urged her to save some of the blood from his wound. He told her that if Hercules would never stop loving her, she could keep his love by applying the blood to his cloak of Hercules if she ever lost his love and he would return. she did as Nessus suggested and saved some of his blood.

When Hercules at one time was unfaithful to her, she gave him a cloak that she had covered with the blood of Nessus. The blood was poisoned, and Hercules asked Zeus allow him to die and enter Olympus.

The Centaurs are well known for the outrageous behavior and acts.  They will stay a part of history that is tainted with their deeds.
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Myths and Heroes

In myths and legends from around the world a theme that appears stories repeatedly is that of the uncommon hero.

 One of the consistent components in these stories is that of a miracle or mystery surrounds the birth of such heroes. They may be the child of a virgin; or they may have special powers or be from the union of a God and a human.

 Many hero myths has a recurring event of the hero going on a quest a task or journey that is beyond the ability of a normal mortal.  That must be undertaken to achieve a goal. These heroes usually set off on journeys filled with challenges and adventures, often connected with magic or the supernatural. A hero may have to descend into Hell and confront death himself

Heroes have the strength beyond the ordinary to defeat enemies, monsters, or demons, a protecting God or Goddess or magician often helps the hero to achieve his goal. In the end the hero returns from his adventures with special powers, wisdom and wealth won in the course of the quest

Several historic human warriors can be considered heroes with their outstanding abilities in combat. In myths about the Trojan War, Achilles was valiant in war and the monster-slaying heroes of early English stories are renowned for their courage.

Some figures in mythology earned their hero status as rulers. King Arthur may have been an historical figure but was brought into a hero of greatness. The African leader Shaka of the Zulu people of southern Africa, gathered a huge army and established a great empire

Another type of hero is the hero who brings the gifts of civilization to a people. In Greek mythology the Titan Prometheus who steals fire for the benefit of humankind.

In hero mythology there is often the element of truth that has symbolic meanings for the people who create them.  Often it instills the concept of striving to the utmost level of one’s ability. Sometimes there is a moral thread intertwined in the stories.  

Heroes will always be a part of cultures around the world and new heroes are being born everyday in areas of medicine; politics and humanity towards others.  People need to have heroes in order to maintain their own self worth and the need to be inspired by someone who is in ways like them.

The Similarity in Creation Myths

Most creation accounts are stories, not to tell of the physical creation, but to teach a moral standard  as in hero stories. They often are used to instruct a culture about some tradition. Many creation myths, have a primary purpose to describe creation.  But many are concerned with problems of living and life. 

There is a basic similarity between most creation myths and Genesis. Among the aspects of the early history of the world found in Genesis which are also found in many creation stories are the confusion of tongues at Babel, and the flood account. In addition to Scripture, aspects of the Tower of Babel account are also found in Syrian, Sumerian, Greek, Babylonian, Chinese, Hindu, Persian and even the American Indian creation stories.

The Biblical account of a universal flood is part of the mythology and legend of almost every culture on earth. Even people living far from the sea as the American Southwest and the Incas in the Andes mountainous region have legends of a great flood washing over the land, covering the tops of mountains and wiping out virtually all life on earth

Where do these creation stories originate. Was there a time in the history of the world when there was once one advanced civilization.  Often there is found in these creation myths such a story about a supreme society which man in his search for immortality destroyed all that the world had accomplished at the time and left it destitute of life except for the ones needed for procreation of the new world that found favor with the God or Gods they believed in.  

Norse Creation Story

The Norse story of the origin of the earth, sky, and humanity were only in spoken form by Viking poets.

      In the beginning of time, there was nothing. Heaven and earth did not exist. Before the earth was made, Niflheim was made, and in it were twelve rivers. To the south was Muspell, a place where there was heat and brightness guarded by Surt, a giant who carried a flaming sword.  Ginnungagap was to the North it was frigid and cold the rivers froze and all was ice. Where  Muspell reached the south side of  Ginnungagap, the ice thawed and dripped, and from that there formed the shape of a man. His name was Ymir, the first of and ancestor of the frost-giants.

As the ice melted more it formed a cow, and from her there flowed four rivers of milk that fed Ymir. The cow ate the salt of the ice, and from this came a man and his name was Buri. He had a son named Bor, who married Bestla, a daughter of one of the giants. Bor and Bestla had three sons, one of whom was Odin, the most powerful of the gods.

Ymir a frost-giant, but not a god caused a struggle between the giant and the young gods, Bor's three sons killed Ymir. Bor's sons dragged Ymir's body to the center of Ginnungagap, and made the earth from . Ymir's blood became the sea, his bones became the rocks, and his hair became the trees. With his skull they made the sky. In it they fixed sparks and molten rock from Muspell they created the stars. With Ymir's brains made the clouds.

 On the sea shore, Bor's sons fashioned people out of them out of two logs. One son gave them breath and life, the second son gave them consciousness and movement, and the third gave them faces and senses. From this man and woman came all humans.

One of the descendants of the first two people had two children. Those two children were so beautiful that their father named the son Moon and the daughter Sol. The gods were insulted at the impudence put the brother and sister up to the sky and forced them to labor. Sol drives the chariot that carries the sun across the sky. Moon takes a course across the sky each night.

 The gods left one path from earth to heaven. This is the bridge that appears in the sky as a rainbow.

The common theme of rivers is seen in most stories of creation.  The need of water to cultivate the earth is an essential part of most creation stories. Along with fire the subjects for the necessity for the life of man to continue on earth is often found in mythology. In the older cultures rivers and rivers were the central part of farming, harvesting, and cooking. Following along these lines are the main component of creation stories.

Hindu Mythology a Short History

Hindu creation myths vary greatly due to the expansion and divergence of the empire.  There are numerous versions resulting in a mixture of folklore that has changed over time to be the most popular beliefs of the civilization. In one version of the story of creation Brahma is the creator of the universe, and the source from which all the individual deities come from.  Brahma transformed branched out without any exterior means. The human soul, according to the Vedas, is a portion of the supreme ruler Brahma.

He represents the three incarnate powers of creation, preservation, and destruction, which under the respective names of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva form the harmony of the Hindu gods. Indra, the god of heaven, of thunder, lightning, storm, and rain; Agni, the god of fire; Surya, the god of the sun.

According to the Rig-Veda, one of the oldest of Indian texts, the most common Indian creation myth, names Purusha, the being beyond all others, as the creator of the basic elements of the world. He is a part of all the features of the Earth.

His body formed the castes of Indian Hindu society. Castes were strict levels in society that members marry and live within in order to accomplish their purpose in life. When Purusha was sacrificed his mouth was the highest caste of Indian society, the Brahmans, the priests and leaders. His arms became the second highest castes, Kshatriyas, the warriors. And his feet created the Shudras, the lowest caste created to serve the higher castes. Vaishyas, farmers and merchants, were formed from Purusha's were created by his thighs.

Purusha's body formed the rest of the known universe. His mind was the moon, his eye was the sun, the storm and fire gods Indra and Agni were fire and his breath was the wind, his head was Heaven, his feet were the earth.

The accounts of creation have common themes and this is just one short version of the creation of the universe and world.  The themes in the myths of the world have a common thread through them and it is no different than the one found in the Hindu beliefs.

The Mayans and Their Culture and Myths

The Mayans were an advanced Indian civilization that no longer exists. At the time when they did exist their Gods were revered they would offer sacrifices to them. The Mayans believed that there were four gods.

In the beginning the Gods tried to make man out of clay but man that was made of clay proved to be too weak. They attempted to make man out of wood. A man out of wood was tried but proved to be inadequate around fire. The Gods made a man out of gold .The golden man remained on the earth but one of the Gods made man from his own body. This man was proven good and was able to worship the gods.

The ancient Maya civilization had a dominant culture. They are distinctive for their development of astronomy, the calendar, and hieroglyphics. Painting and architecture were important aspects of the Mayan culture. Also the Mayans were accomplished farmers, weavers, and potters.  The civilization believed that life and death was an ongoing cycle. They believed the earth to be flat and had four corners.  Above the earth was the sky in where different Gods lived in layers. Below the earth was an underworld in which the sun, the moon, and Venus were disappeared to at night when they descended. Mayans also believed that this underworld was the expected destination after death.

The Mayan empire was mainly located in modern day Central America and covered the southern part of Mexico extending down to Honduras. Most of the locations where the Mayan people built their cities were in tropical rain forests. The Mayan cities were built near natural water holes that allowed the Mayans to survive in the rain forest. Most of their culture revolved around farming. For the Mayans were very advanced in science. Their astronomers were able to predict the cycles of the moon, and even had the ability to predict when eclipses would occur. 

 The Mayans were a very intelligent people and their creation story is more complex that other creation myths.

The Ancient Incas

The exact origins of the Incan people are unknown with most of its history comes from oral traditions, stone, pottery, jewelry, and tapestry.  The civilization was only existed for approximately 100 years.  The Incans named their empire, Land of the Four Quarters because it stretched north to south 2,500 miles along the Andean Range from Columbia to Chile. 

The Incans were considered descendants of the sun.  Consequently the Incan people worshiped the sun with a celebration that was held annually to praise the sun for growing the crops.  The Incans worshipped the sun god, Inti.  The origins of the Incans describe how the sun god sent his children to find Cuzco, the sacred city and capital of the Inca Empire.

The Incans were a people who had an almost communistic empire when it came to the distribution of resources and labor. The Incans were like the ancient Aztec people, and they inhabited South America in about the same time period. 

Most of the Incans were farmers, and they relied on grain harvesting. The Incans believe that in the beginning the earth was covered in darkness. Out of a lake called Collasuyu, the God Con Tiqui came forth bringing some human beings with him. Con Tiqui created the sun, the moon and the stars to light the world and created more human beings out of the rocks He then sent these people off into every comer of the world. He kept a male and female with him at Cuzco

 The Incans had many Gods and built temples and monuments to these Gods. Each God represented an important part of their life and so the Incans believed that to live a good life, one had to pray to each God and make sacrifices to them.

The Egyptians and Mythology

The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods. Each god was a god of certain things. Ra was the God of the sun and Geb was the God of the earth. Water was and is very important in desert regions so the Egyptian culture revolved around the Nile River. Because water was so important to the Egyptians, water was also a significant part in their creation stories.

The culture and creation myth of ancient Egypt follows the same theme as some of the unusual and obscure legends as other cultures. Their beliefs consisted of gods, mythology and cult temples. Their secrecy and division as far as who was allowed to obtain the highest spiritual knowledge is mirrored in the division and downfall of Egypt.

The Egyptians believe that the world was nothing but a chaotic body of water called Nun and the God Atum created himself from the chaos.  Atum was alone on the Earth and  the need more gods became evident and so  he spat out a son, Shu God of air, and vomited his daughter, Tefnut Goddess of moisture.  From the union of them the God of the earth, Geb, and the Goddess of the sky, Nut was produced.  They conceived four offspring Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys, known as the Gods of kinship.  These nine Gods and Goddess’ were the Ennead of Heliopolis.  The ancient Egyptians’ creation myth explains the origin of not only their world but of the gods that they so fervently worshiped as part of their every day life. y. Ra then created men from his tears.

One practice of the Egyptians is mummification, which originated from the myth of Osiris.  Osiris was an admired and supreme king and this caused resentment in his brother Seth.  According to the legend, Seth locked Osiris in a coffin and sent it down the Nile River where it was discovered by a king.  When Osiris’ wife/sister, Isis, found out she immediately recovered the body but Seth chopped it up in pieces and strewn them throughout Egypt. Isis searched and found every piece of Osiris and wrapped them in linen cloth.  She then breathed life into him and he became the ruler of the underworld.  Osiris represents life, death and resurrection and to the Egyptians and his story brought about the use of mummification.

The Mysteries of Easter Island

The religious beliefs of the Easter Island civilization included at least ninety different named Gods and spirits divided into high gods and lesser gods. High Gods included the creator, the rain God, and the superior God Make-make. Lesser Gods included Gods of, nature spirits, demons, and ancestor spirits. Religious ritual included offerings of food and tapa, communication through priests, and chanting. Traditional beliefs have now been completely replaced by Catholicism.  

According to Rapa Nui mythology Hotu Matu'a was the first settler and supreme chief  Hotu Matu'a and his double canoe colony were from Polynesia. They landed at Anakena beach and  the people spread out across the island, dividing it into clans decedents  from  his sons, and  lived for more than a thousand years in their isolated island until they were discovered by the Dutch  in 1722.

 Little is known of the role and status of priests other than the fact that they acted as healers and communicated with the supernatural world by trance when they were possessed. Priests could also place harmful curses. There were also sorcerers who used their skills to influence or cause harm to others.

Ceremonies were held to bring rain, sanctify new houses, and to ensure a good harvest and to mark major life events. The annual feast of the bird cult and the feast of the Bird-Man were the most significant ceremonies.

 The best-known of the traditional arts was an emphasis on stone working and stone carving. These expressions are seen by the 600 large, from 20 to 60 feet high, carved stone statues mounted on stone platforms called ahu. The statues may be portraits of ancestors and chiefs. By the time of European contact, the carving had ended with about 150 statues left unfinished and many fallen over. Some interior stone walls of houses are decorated with paintings. Various ornaments were carved and both men and women wore body tattoos.

Healing was done by the priests who used steam baths, massage, binding and contact with spirits.  In the past, the deceased’s body was placed on the ahu platform and left to decompose. The bones were then buried in the ahu vault. The funeral ceremony included a large feast with singing and dancing. Today, Roman Catholic practices have replaced the traditional ones, although they survived into the twentieth century. The body is now displayed in the home, followed by the church rite and burial in a coffin in the church cemetery. Interment is accompanied by hysterical

Galahad the Greatest Knight in the World

Galahad was destined to greatness but his birth was one of magic and trickery. Elaine, the daughter of King Pelles, the Grail King, uses magic to trick Sir Lancelot into thinking that she is Queen Guinevere, whom Lancelot loves.  King Pelles has already received a magical foretelling that Lancelot will give his daughter a child and that this little boy will grow to become the greatest knight in the world, the knight chosen by God to achieve the Holy Grail. King Pelles knew that Lancelot will only lie with his one true love, Queen Guinevere and came to the decision that deception was the only way to fulfill the prophecy.

Sir Lancelot and Elaine sleep together, but on discovering the deception, Lancelot attempts to kill Elaine for her deception, but when he finds out that they have conceived a son together, he is driven mad;  he does not marry Elaine and when his senses are cured and returns to King Arthur's court. The young Galahad is born and placed in the care of an abbess at a nunnery, to be raised there.

Upon reaching adulthood, Galahad is reunited with his father Sir Lancelot, who knights him. Sir Galahad is then brought to King Arthur's court at Camelot during Pentecost, where he is accompanied by a very old knight who immediately leads him over to the Round Table and unveils his seat at the Siege Perilous, an chair that has been kept vacant for the sole person who will accomplish the quest of the Holy Grail and be known as the greatest knight.  For all others who have dared to sit there, it proved to be fatal. Sir Galahad survives this test.  King Arthur who, realizes the greatness of this new knight, leads him out to the river where a sword lies in a stone with an inscription reading “Never shall man take me hence but only he by whose side I ought to hang; and he shall be the best knight of the world.” Galahad accomplishes this test also, and King Arthur proclaims him to be the greatest knight ever.

Sir Galahad is invited to become a Knight of the Round Table, and soon afterwards, King Arthur's court witnesses an ethereal vision of the Holy Grail. The quest to seek out this holy object was immediately decided.  Merlin had a prophecy that Galahad will surpass his father in valor and be would be successful in his search for the Holy Grail. King Pelles, Galahad's maternal grandfather, is a descendant of Bron, Joseph of Arimathea's brother-in-law, whose line was entrusted with the Grail by Joseph.

After many adventures, Sir Galahad and Sir Perceval find themselves at the court of King Pelles and Eliazar, his son. These men are very holy and they bring Galahad into a room where he is finally allowed to see the Holy Grail. Galahad is asked to take the vessel to the holy city of Sarras.

After succeeding in the search for the Grail him and his companions, Perceval and Bors brought the Holy Grail out of Britain at the command of Jesus, to the city of Sarras. Galahad was allowed to see the last secrets of the Grail that had been revealed before he died, and was taken to heaven. With his death the grail and the lance vanished from the world. After seeing the grail, Galahad makes request that he may die at the time of his choosing.

So while making his way back to Arthur’s court, Sir Galahad is visited by Joseph of Arimathea, and Galahad was allowed to see the last secrets of the Grail. He experiences glorious rapture and he makes his request to die. After he says farewell to Percival and Bors, Galahad is taken up to heaven by angels, witnessed by Sir Bors and Perceval

Galahad succeeded where others failed in the quest, Galahad was the pure knight, and was often known as the Good Knight.

The Trojan War

The Trojan War actually was caused by the marriage between Peleus and Thetis, a sea-goddess . Peleus and Thetis had not invited Eris, the Goddess of discord, to their wedding and this infuriated Goddess broke up the wedding banquet and threw a golden apple into the midst of guests. The apple belonged to; Eris said whoever was the fairest.

Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite laid claim for the apple. Zeus irritated with the argument proclaimed that Paris, prince of Troy and supposedly the most handsome man alive would act as the judge.

Hermes went to Paris and Paris agreed to judge who should have the apple. Hera promised him power, Athena promised him wealth, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world.

Paris chose Aphrodite, and she promised him that Helen, wife of Menelaus, would be his wife. Paris then prepared to embark for Sparta to capture Helen. Two prophets Cassandra and Helenus tried to persuade him against his intention, as did his mother, Hecuba. But Paris would not listen and he   started out for Sparta.

In Sparta, Menelaus, husband of Helen, treated Paris as a royal guest. However, when Menelaus left Sparta to go to a funeral, Paris abducted Helen and also most of Menelaus' wealth.

In Troy, Helen and Paris were married. Menelaus was outraged to find that Paris had taken Helen. Menelaus then called upon all of the men that had previously tried in vain to wed Helen, they had made an oath long ago that they would all back Helen's husband to defend her honor.

The Greek fleet assembled, under Agamemnon in Aulis. However, Agamemnon had killed one of Diana's sacred stags. Diana was outraged and she calmed the seas so that the fleet could not take off. The seer Calchas proclaimed that Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon, must be sacrificed before the fleet could set sail. Unfortunately for Iphigeniathis was done, and the Greek ships set off to Troy.

Odysseus, known for his eloquence, and Menelaus were sent as ambassadors to Priam. They demanded Helen and the stolen treasure be returned. Priam refused, and Odysseus and Menelaus declared that war was inevitable.

The first nine years of the war consisted of both war in Troy and war against the neighboring regions. The Greeks realized that Troy was being supplied by its neighboring kingdoms, so Greeks were sent to defeat these areas.

The Greeks won many important battles and the Trojan hero Hector fell, as did the Trojan ally Penthesilea. But the Greeks could not break down the walls of Troy.  Achilles was felled by deception by Paris.

Helenus, son of Priam, had been captured by Odysseus. A prophet, Helenus told the Greeks that Troy would not fall unless:  Pyrrhus, Achilles' son, fought in the war, the bow and arrows of Hercules were used by the Greeks against the Trojans,  the remains of Pelops, the famous Eleian hero, were brought to Troy, and the Palladium, a statue of Athena, was stolen from Troy

Phoenix persuaded Pyrrhus to join the war. Philoctetes had the bow and arrows of Hercules, but had been left by the Greek fleet in Lemnos. Philoctetes was bitter, but was finally persuaded to join the Greeks. The remains of Pelops were gotten, and Odysseus infiltrated Trojan defenses and stole the Palladium.

Still seeking to gain entrance into Troy, Odysseus with the aid of Athena ordered the construction of a large wooden horse to be built. Its insides were to be hollow so that soldiers could hide within it.

Once the statue had been built by the artist Epeius, a number of the Greek warriors, along with Odysseus, climbed inside. The rest of the Greek fleet sailed away a little out to sea to deceive the Trojans. One man, Sinon, was left behind. When the Trojans came to the awesome sight of the huge creation, Sinon pretended to be angry with the Greeks, stating that they had deserted him. He assured the Trojans that the wooden horse would bring luck to the Trojans.

Laocoon and Cassandra, spoke out against the horse, but the Trojans disregarded their prophecies. The Trojans celebrated what they thought was their victory, and brought the wooden horse into the walls of Troy.

That night, after most of Troy was asleep, Sinon let the Greek warriors out from the horse, and they slaughtered the Trojans. Priam was killed by Zeus' altar and Cassandra was pulled from the statue of Athena and raped. Polyxena, daughter of Priam, was sacrificed at the tomb of Achilles and Astyanax, son of Hector, was also sacrificed, signifying the end of the war.

Aeneas, a Trojan prince, managed to escape the destruction of Troy, and managed to make a flight from Troy.  Aeneas was the only Trojan prince to survive. Menelaus, who had been determined to kill his faithless wife, later forgave her because of her beauty and she returned as his wife. The Trojan women that survived were shared among the Greek men along with the other booty. 

The Greeks then set sail for home which for some proved to be more adventurous as the Trojan War.

The Romance Languages a Short History

The Romance languages are all the related languages derived from Vulgar Latin and form a subgroup of the Indo-European language family.

The Romance languages include Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian and many others.

The Romance languages developed from Vulgar Latin in the 6^th- 9th centuries. Today, they are spoken by more than 800 million native speakers worldwide and a large number of non native speakers.

Because of difficulty in distinguishing variety, and dialect, it is impossible to count the number of Romance languages now in existence; the number of living Romance languages is estimated at about 25.

The Romance languages most prominently spoken today are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian. Many of these languages have large numbers of non-native speakers; especially French which is used throughout West Africa. 

The Romance languages originate from the popular Latin spoken by soldiers, settlers and merchants of the Roman Empire, and are distinguished from the Classical form spoken by the Roman upper classes,  in which the language was generally written. With the expansion of the Empire, Latin became the dominant native language in Western Europe.

During the Empire's decline and after its collapse in the 5th century the varieties of Latin began to diverge within local areas and evolved into different languages. The empires which were established in Portugal, Spain and France spread their languages to the other continents.

In the medieval literature of Western Europe, serious writing was usually in Latin, while popular works, often focusing on love, were composed in the colloquial speech and came to be called romances.  

British Romance and African Romance, the forms of Vulgar Latin used in southeastern Britain and the Roman province of Africa, where it had been spoken by much of the urban population, disappeared in the Middle Ages. But the Germanic tribes that had spread to Italy, Gaul, and Hispania eventually adopted Latin and the traces of Roman culture, and so Latin remained the dominant language there.

Between the centuries, some local dialects developed a written form and began to replace Latin in many areas where it had been prominent.

The Romance language most widely spoken native language is Spanish Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, follow all of which are the official languages in at least one country.  French and Spanish are two of the six official languages of the United Nations. French, Portuguese and Spanish are spoken and have official status in various countries that emerged from their colonial empires. French is one of the official languages of Canada, and in Africa, and some islands and it are the official language of Quebec.

Spanish is an official language of Mexico, much of South America, Central America, the islands of in the Caribbean and it is the official language of Guinea in Africa and is the most spoken Romance language in the world.

Portuguese is the official language of Brazil it is the language in five African countries.

Although Italy also had some colonial possessions,  Italian was spoken only as a minority or secondary language by immigrant communities especially the other Romance countries most notably Italy and Spain, and elsewhere such as in Israel where it is a native language and by many as a second language. The remaining Romance languages survive mostly as spoken languages for informal contact. As a result, all of these languages are considered endangered. Romance languages have a number of shared features across all languages:

The Romance languages for the most part have kept the writing system of Latin. However, Romanian before the 19th century, literacy was reintroduced through the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, a Slavic influence. A Cyrillic alphabet was also used for Romanian in the USSR. The non-Christian populations of Spain also used the scripts of their religions Arabic and Hebrew to write Romance.

With the decline of the usage of the languages Romance languages may in the future vanish although the number of people in the world does not support this supposition.  The romance of the Romance languages continues in all parts of the world; to be enjoyed by many.  The variations of these languages are passed down from generation to generation developing into a more universal verbal communication for a significant population of the world.